La Higiene Industrial sería la “disciplina encargada de identificar, evaluar y controlar los contaminantes de origen laboral”.
Existen tres tipos de contaminantes:
- Contaminantes Físicos.
- Contaminantes Químicos.
- Contaminantes Biológicos.
La higiene industrial se centra principalmente en los contaminantes físicos y químicos, mientras que los contaminantes biológicos entrarían en el campo de la medicina.
Los contaminantes químicos pueden aparecer en los siguientes estados:
- Sólidos:
- Polvo (sílice).
- Fibras (amianto).
- Humos (combustibles).
- Líquidos: Aerosoles (plaguicidas).
- Gaseosos: Vapores (disolventes).
Los contaminantes físicos son formas de energía y entre ellos distinguimos:
- Energía mecánica: Ruido, vibraciones.
- Energía térmica: Calor / frío.
- Radiaciones: ionizantes / no ionizantes.
La higiene industrial identifica, evalúa y controla los contaminantes.
- El primer paso será identificar cuáles son los contaminantes que pueden afectar a la salud del trabajador.
- Una segunda fase en todo campo de aplicación de la higiene industrial sería la medición, es decir, cuantificar el contaminante.
- En función de la medición, se valorará el nivel de contaminante, para decidir si nos encontramos ante una situación segura o ante una situación peligrosa, para ello utilizaremos criterios de valoración.
- Si se decide que estamos ante una situación segura, se llevará a cabo un control periódico para determinar si se sigue en la misma línea. Si, por el contrario, se decide que la situación es peligrosa se tendrá que actuar sobre los contaminantes, mediante uncontrol ambiental.
Dentro de la Higiene Industrial tendríamos que diferenciar cuatro ramas específicas, cada una con un campo de aplicación concreto:
- Higiene Teórica: Es la encargada de elaborar los criterios de valoración. Sobre el esquema, la higiene teórica será la que aporte los criterios de valoración para determinar si la situación es segura o peligrosa para el trabajador.
- Higiene de Campo: Es la encargada de identificar y medir los contaminantes presentes en el ambiente de trabajo. Sería la que actuaría a nivel de las etapas de identificación y medición que aparecen en el esquema.
- Higiene Analítica: Esta rama estaría muy relacionada con la higiene de campo. Se refiere a técnicas de laboratorio usadas para identificar y medir los contaminantes laborales. La higiene de campo mide e identifica los contaminantes en el lugar de trabajo y la higiene analítica toma muestras en el lugar de trabajo y las analiza en el laboratorio. Estaría indicada, fundamentalmente, en contaminantes químicos.
- Higiene Operativa: Sería la rama encargada de controlar, eliminar o reducir los niveles de contaminante en el trabajo.
Vamos a ver un ejemplo en relación a un contaminante: El amianto y las cuatro ramas de la higiene industrial:
En un taller de reparaciones de embarcaciones donde se utiliza el amianto para repara dichas embarcaciones la higiene teórica identificaría el contaminante (amianto), la higiene de campo sería la encargada de medir el nivel de contaminante, mediante unas bombas de aire, haciendo pasar el aire por un filtro, al que el amianto, en caso de estar presente, quedaría adherido, contando el número de fibras por cm3 de aire. El resultado de la medición sería comparado con unos criterios de valoración, se compararían las guías que indican los niveles máximos de amianto (2 fibras/ cm3).
Los criterios de valoración son valores de referencia si nos encontramos ante un riesgo para la salud del trabajador. Cuando efectuamos la medición de un contaminante tomamos dos tipos de valores: Valor ambiental y valor biológico. Con los criterios de valoración se trata de hacer una comparación entre los anteriores valores con los propuestos para la prevención, y de esta comparación se extraerán unas conclusiones sobre la situación según el criterio de valoración aplicado. Por tanto será muy importante no confundir los valores guía con las medidas o muestras.
- CAMPOS DE ACTUACIÓN.
- Higiene Teórica.
Es la encargada de elaborar los criterios de valoración, que serían Valores de referencia para evaluar los riesgos derivados de la exposición de los trabajadores a un determinado nivel de contaminante en el ambiente de trabajo. Los criterios de valoración se elaborarían en base a una serie de conocimientos:
- Una primera fuente de conocimiento sería la experimentación con animales. El problema de esta fuente es que el resultado de estos experimentos no siempre sería extrapolable a la raza humana, es decir, podrían producirse errores.
- Otra fuente sería el conocimiento por analogía química. Las sustancias químicas tienen una acción determinada sobre las personas porque su composición, su estructura química produce determinados efectos. Así, si conocemos los efectos de una sustancia con una determinada estructura química, podremos determinar que otra sustancia con estructura análoga producirá efectos similares.
- Una tercera fuente de conocimiento sería la experimentación con personas, que sólo podría utilizarse en el caso de sustancias que produzcan efectos totalmente reversibles. Se suele utilizar en relación con alergias.
- Una última fuente de información o conocimiento es lo que se ha llamado Estudios Epidemiológicos, los cuales se basan en la observación de lo que sucede a los trabajadores expuestos a los contaminantes existentes en sus lugares de trabajo. La diferencia con la experimentación con personas radicaría en que en ésta última se daría una exposición deliberada a los contaminantes, mientras que en el caso de los estudios epidemiológicos la exposición no es deliberada, sino que ya existe y lo que se hace es observar y analizar sus consecuencias. El problema de esta fuente de conocimiento es que se estaría llevando a cabo una acción “a posteriori”.
Ninguna de estas fuentes de información es certera al 100%. Así, los criterios de valoración dependerán del estado de conocimiento, y pueden ser modificadas.
En la elaboración de los criterios de valoración, a parte de consideraciones científicas, intervienen también consideraciones políticas y económicas.
Cuanto mayor sea la agresividad del ambiente de exposición, mayor será el porcentaje de trabajadores afectados. Esta relación se cumple para todos los contaminantes. Así, el criterio de valoración se elegirá dependiendo del número de afectados que se pretenda aceptar como máximo. La fijación del porcentaje de afectados que estamos dispuestos a admitir es una decisión política.
Cuanto más bajo sea el límite del contaminante, más protector será ese límite para los trabajadores, aunque mantener el límite bajo, suele suponer mayores costes. El hecho de que el nivel de contaminante esté por debajo del límite no es garantía de estar en una situación segura, sólo se ha reducido el riesgo.
criterios ambientales y biológicos.
Existen distintos tipos de criterios de valoración. Vamos a ver dos tipos de criterios:
- Criterios Ambientales: Los más prestigiosos son los TLV (Threshold Limit Value), es decir, el Valor Límite Umbral, que expresa concentraciones ambientales de un contaminante, por debajo del cual la mayoría de los trabajadores pueden estar expuestos sin sufrir efectos adversos.
Estos valores existen para, aproximadamente, entre 700 y 800 contaminantes laborales, tanto químicos como físicos. Aún cuando suponen unos valores límite, se asume que existe una minoría de trabajadores que pueden verse afectados al exponerse a los contaminantes por debajo de ese valor límite.
Existe una publicación de la Generalitat Valenciana donde aparecen los contaminantes con sus TLVs. Esta relación es elaborada anualmente por la American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
Cada contaminante puede tener asignados tres tipos de TLVs:
- TLV – TWA (Time Weighted Average): Sería la media ponderada en el tiempo. Se define como la “concentración media de contaminante para una jornada de 8 horas diarias o 40 semanales, a la que la mayoría de los trabajadores pueden estar expuestos sin sufrir efectos adversos”. Se trata de una media, ya que si midiéramos el nivel de un contaminante durante el tiempo de trabajo, dicho nivel presentaría mucha variación, por lo que se calcula la media de las exposiciones producidas en el tiempo.
- TLV – C (Ceiling): Es una “concentración del contaminante que no debe superarse en ningún momento de la jornada laboral”. Sería el valor techo, que no debe superarse nunca durante toda la jornada.
- TLV – STEL (Short Term Exposure Level): Es el nivel de exposición a corto plazo, que se define como “Límites de exposición que no deben durar más de 15 minutos, que no deben repetirse más de cuatro veces por día y que deben estar espaciados en el tiempo al menos 1 hora”.
Estos TLVs son relativos y presentan problemas de interpretación.
“Esta revisión demuestra que, como media, la incidencia de efectos adversos con exposiciones laborales al mismo nivel o por debajo del TLV varía entre el 0% y el 100%; como media, uno de cada 6-7 trabajadores expuestos a estos niveles manifiestan efectos adversos, lo que claramente contradice la definición de los TLVs”
“Nuestra conclusión es que los TLVs para substancias químicas son un compromiso entre consideraciones basadas en la salud de los trabajadores y consideraciones de naturaleza estrictamente práctica para la industria, estando el equilibrio fuertemente a favor de éstas últimas. En otras palabras, la mayoría de los TLVs representan valores que se han establecido como guía, pero no son límites de seguridad”.
Como ya hemos dicho los criterios ambientales más prestigiosos son los TLVs, pero recientemente ha habido una propuesta de criterios que son los VLA (Valor Límite Ambiental), que se definirían como “los valores de referencia para concentraciones de los agentes químicos en el aire, para los que se cree, en base a conocimientos actuales, que la mayoría de los trabajadores pueden estar expuestos sin sufrir efectos adversos”. Los VLA están elaborados por el INSHT, que depende del Ministerio de Trabajo, y que ha distinguido dos tipos de VLA:
- VLA-ED (Exposición Diaria): sería el equivalente al TLV-TWA.
- VLA-EC (Exposición de corta duración): sería el equivalente al TLV-C.
Tanto los TLVs como los VLAs se refieren a niveles de contaminante en el ambiente, pero existen otros tipos de criterios de valoración.
- Criterios Biológicos: Se refieren a valores límite del contaminante, de un metabolito del contaminante, o de otros parámetros relacionados con el contaminante, medidos en el propio trabajador. Puede medirse la presencia del contaminante en sangre, pueden medirse los metabolitos o pueden medirse otros parámetros como podrían ser enzimas.
Los valores de referencia que propone y elabora la ACGIH son los BEI (Indicadores Biológicos de Exposición). Estos valores de referencia permiten comparar el nivel máximo recomendable con el nivel de contaminante que encontramos en el trabajador.
The Industrial Hygiene would "discipline is responsible for identifying, evaluating and controlling occupational pollutants."
There are three types of pollutants:Physical contaminants.Chemical Contaminants.Biological contaminants.
Industrial hygiene focuses primarily on physical and chemical contaminants, while biological contaminants enter the field of medicine.
Chemical contaminants may occur in the following states:Solids:Dust (silica).Fibers (asbestos).Smoke (fuel).Liquids: Aerosols (pesticides).Gaseous: vapors (solvents).Physical contaminants are forms of energy and distinguish between them:Mechanical Energy: Noise, vibration.Thermal Energy: Heat / cold.Radiation: ionizing / non-ionizing.Industrial Hygiene identifies, evaluates and controls contaminants.The first step is to identify the contaminants that may affect worker health.A second phase in every field of industrial hygiene application would be the measurement, ie, to quantify the contaminant.Depending on the measurement, assess the level of pollution, to decide whether we are in a safe situation or face a dangerous situation, we use our evaluation criteria.If you decide that this is a safe situation, will be carried out periodic checks to determine if it follows the same line. If, on the contrary, it is decided that the situation is dangerous will have to act upon the pollutants, using environmental Uncontrol.Within the Industrial Hygiene would have to distinguish four specific branches, each with a specific scope:Hygiene Theory: It is responsible for developing the assessment criteria. About the scheme, the hygiene theory will be to provide assessment criteria to determine if the situation is safe or dangerous to the worker.Field Hygiene: It is responsible for identifying and measuring contaminants in the workplace. Which would act at the level of identification and measurement steps shown in the diagram.Hygiene Analysis: This branch would be closely related to field sanitation. Refers to laboratory techniques used to identify and measure occupational pollutants. Field hygiene measures and identifies the contaminants in the workplace hygiene and analytical samples taken in the workplace and analyzed in the laboratory. Would be indicated primarily on chemical contaminants.Hygiene Operation: Branch would be responsible for controlling, eliminating or reducing pollutant levels in the workplace.Let's see an example in relation to a pollutant: asbestos and the four branches of industrial hygiene:
In a ship repair facility where asbestos is used to repair such vessels theoretical hygiene identify the pollutant (asbestos), field hygiene would be responsible for measuring the level of pollution, by air pumps, air passing through a filter, to which the asbestos, if present, would be joined by counting the number of fibers per cm 3 of air.The measurement results would be compared with evaluation criteria, it compares the guidelines indicate the maximum levels of asbestos (2 fibers / cm 3).
The endpoints are reference values if we have a risk to worker health. When we perform the measurement of a contaminant take two types of values: environmental and biological value. With the endpoints is a comparison between the above values with those proposed for the prevention, and this comparison is drawn conclusions on the situation at the discretion of valuation applied. So be very important not to confuse the guideline values with the measures or samples.FIELDS OF ACTION.Hygiene Theory.It is responsible for developing the assessment criteria, which would reference values for assessing risks from exposure of workers to a certain level of contaminant in the workplace. The assessment criteria would be developed based on a series of knowledge:A first source of knowledge would be animal testing. The problem with this source is that the outcome of these experiments may not always be extrapolated to the human race, that is, errors may occur.Another source would be knowledge by chemical analogy. The chemicals have a particular action on people because its composition, its chemical structure has certain effects. So, if we know the effects of a substance with a specific chemical structure, we can determine that another substance with similar structure produce similar effects.A third source of knowledge would be experimenting with people, to be used only in the case of substances that produce effects fully reversible. It is often used in connection with allergies.A final source of information or knowledge is what has been called for Epidemiologic Studies, which are based on observation of what happens to workers exposed to contaminants in their workplaces. The difference with the experiments would be that people in the latter there would be a deliberate exposure to contaminants, while in the case of epidemiological studies exposure is not deliberate, but it already exists and what is done is to observe and analyze its consequences. The problem with this source of knowledge is that it was carrying out an action "a posteriori".None of these sources is 100% accurate. Thus, the evaluation criteria depend on the state of knowledge, and may change.In developing the assessment criteria, in addition to scientific considerations are also involved political and economic considerations.
The higher the aggressiveness of the environment of exposure, the greater the percentage of workers affected. This relationship holds for all contaminants. Thus, the endpoint will be chosen depending on the number of affected people it is intended to accept a maximum. Determining the percentage of affected people who are willing to admit is a political decision.
The lower limit for the pollutant, the limit will be more protective for workers, while maintaining the low limit, usually lead to higher costs. The fact that the contaminant level is below the limit is not guaranteed to be in a safe situation, only reduced the risk.environmental and biological criteria.
There are different types of endpoints. We will see two types of criteria:Environmental Criteria: The most prestigious are the TLV (Threshold Limit Value), that is, the TLV, which expresses environmental concentrations of a contaminant below which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect.These values exist for approximately 700 to 800 workplace pollutants, both chemical and physical. Although mean limit values, it is assumed that there is a minority of workers who may be affected by exposure to contaminants below that threshold.A publication of the Valencia where contaminants are their TLVs. This relationship is developed annually by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).Each pollutant may be assigned three types of TLVs:TLV - TWA (Time Weighted Average): It would be the weighted average over time. Is defined as the "average pollutant concentration for an 8-hour days or 40 per week, to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect." Is about half as if one were to measure the level of contaminant during the working time, said level presented considerable variation, so that the average is calculated exposures produced in time.TLV - C (Ceiling): A "pollutant concentration must not be exceeded at any time during working hours." Roof would be the value that should not be exceeded at all during the whole day.TLV - STEL (Short Term Exposure Level): The level of short-term exposure, defined as "exposure limits should not exceed 15 minutes, which should not be repeated more than four times per day and must be spaced in time at least 1 hour. "These TLVs are relative and present problems of interpretation."This review shows that on average, the incidence of adverse effects from occupational exposures at or below the TLV varies between 0% and 100%, on average, one every 6-7 workers exposed to these levels show adverse effects, which clearly contradicts the definition of TLVs ""Our conclusion is that the TLVs for chemical substances are a compromise between considerations based on the health of workers and strictly practical considerations of the industry, with the balance heavily in favor of the latter. In other words, most of TLVs represent values that have been established as a guide but not safety limits ".
As already mentioned the most prestigious environmental criteria are TLVs, but has recently been a proposal of criteria that are the VLA (Exposure Limit), which would be defined as "reference values for concentrations of chemicals in the air, for which it is believed, based on current knowledge, that most workers can be exposed without adverse effect. " The VLA is prepared by the working clothes under the Ministry of Labour, and has distinguished two types of VLA:TWA (Daily Show) would be equivalent to the TLV-TWA.STEL (short term exposure) would be equivalent to the TLV-C.Both TLVs as VLAS refer to levels of contaminants in the environment, but other types of endpoints.Biological Criteria: Refer to the pollutant limits, a metabolite of the contaminant, or other parameters related to the pollutant measured in the worker. Can be measured in the presence of contaminating blood can be measured can be measured metabolites or other parameters as may be enzymes.
The reference values proposed by the ACGIH and are prepared BEI (Biological Exposure). These benchmarks to compare the recommended maximum contaminant level to that found in the worker.
There are three types of pollutants:Physical contaminants.Chemical Contaminants.Biological contaminants.
Industrial hygiene focuses primarily on physical and chemical contaminants, while biological contaminants enter the field of medicine.
Chemical contaminants may occur in the following states:Solids:Dust (silica).Fibers (asbestos).Smoke (fuel).Liquids: Aerosols (pesticides).Gaseous: vapors (solvents).Physical contaminants are forms of energy and distinguish between them:Mechanical Energy: Noise, vibration.Thermal Energy: Heat / cold.Radiation: ionizing / non-ionizing.Industrial Hygiene identifies, evaluates and controls contaminants.The first step is to identify the contaminants that may affect worker health.A second phase in every field of industrial hygiene application would be the measurement, ie, to quantify the contaminant.Depending on the measurement, assess the level of pollution, to decide whether we are in a safe situation or face a dangerous situation, we use our evaluation criteria.If you decide that this is a safe situation, will be carried out periodic checks to determine if it follows the same line. If, on the contrary, it is decided that the situation is dangerous will have to act upon the pollutants, using environmental Uncontrol.Within the Industrial Hygiene would have to distinguish four specific branches, each with a specific scope:Hygiene Theory: It is responsible for developing the assessment criteria. About the scheme, the hygiene theory will be to provide assessment criteria to determine if the situation is safe or dangerous to the worker.Field Hygiene: It is responsible for identifying and measuring contaminants in the workplace. Which would act at the level of identification and measurement steps shown in the diagram.Hygiene Analysis: This branch would be closely related to field sanitation. Refers to laboratory techniques used to identify and measure occupational pollutants. Field hygiene measures and identifies the contaminants in the workplace hygiene and analytical samples taken in the workplace and analyzed in the laboratory. Would be indicated primarily on chemical contaminants.Hygiene Operation: Branch would be responsible for controlling, eliminating or reducing pollutant levels in the workplace.Let's see an example in relation to a pollutant: asbestos and the four branches of industrial hygiene:
In a ship repair facility where asbestos is used to repair such vessels theoretical hygiene identify the pollutant (asbestos), field hygiene would be responsible for measuring the level of pollution, by air pumps, air passing through a filter, to which the asbestos, if present, would be joined by counting the number of fibers per cm 3 of air.The measurement results would be compared with evaluation criteria, it compares the guidelines indicate the maximum levels of asbestos (2 fibers / cm 3).
The endpoints are reference values if we have a risk to worker health. When we perform the measurement of a contaminant take two types of values: environmental and biological value. With the endpoints is a comparison between the above values with those proposed for the prevention, and this comparison is drawn conclusions on the situation at the discretion of valuation applied. So be very important not to confuse the guideline values with the measures or samples.FIELDS OF ACTION.Hygiene Theory.It is responsible for developing the assessment criteria, which would reference values for assessing risks from exposure of workers to a certain level of contaminant in the workplace. The assessment criteria would be developed based on a series of knowledge:A first source of knowledge would be animal testing. The problem with this source is that the outcome of these experiments may not always be extrapolated to the human race, that is, errors may occur.Another source would be knowledge by chemical analogy. The chemicals have a particular action on people because its composition, its chemical structure has certain effects. So, if we know the effects of a substance with a specific chemical structure, we can determine that another substance with similar structure produce similar effects.A third source of knowledge would be experimenting with people, to be used only in the case of substances that produce effects fully reversible. It is often used in connection with allergies.A final source of information or knowledge is what has been called for Epidemiologic Studies, which are based on observation of what happens to workers exposed to contaminants in their workplaces. The difference with the experiments would be that people in the latter there would be a deliberate exposure to contaminants, while in the case of epidemiological studies exposure is not deliberate, but it already exists and what is done is to observe and analyze its consequences. The problem with this source of knowledge is that it was carrying out an action "a posteriori".None of these sources is 100% accurate. Thus, the evaluation criteria depend on the state of knowledge, and may change.In developing the assessment criteria, in addition to scientific considerations are also involved political and economic considerations.
The higher the aggressiveness of the environment of exposure, the greater the percentage of workers affected. This relationship holds for all contaminants. Thus, the endpoint will be chosen depending on the number of affected people it is intended to accept a maximum. Determining the percentage of affected people who are willing to admit is a political decision.
The lower limit for the pollutant, the limit will be more protective for workers, while maintaining the low limit, usually lead to higher costs. The fact that the contaminant level is below the limit is not guaranteed to be in a safe situation, only reduced the risk.environmental and biological criteria.
There are different types of endpoints. We will see two types of criteria:Environmental Criteria: The most prestigious are the TLV (Threshold Limit Value), that is, the TLV, which expresses environmental concentrations of a contaminant below which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect.These values exist for approximately 700 to 800 workplace pollutants, both chemical and physical. Although mean limit values, it is assumed that there is a minority of workers who may be affected by exposure to contaminants below that threshold.A publication of the Valencia where contaminants are their TLVs. This relationship is developed annually by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).Each pollutant may be assigned three types of TLVs:TLV - TWA (Time Weighted Average): It would be the weighted average over time. Is defined as the "average pollutant concentration for an 8-hour days or 40 per week, to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect." Is about half as if one were to measure the level of contaminant during the working time, said level presented considerable variation, so that the average is calculated exposures produced in time.TLV - C (Ceiling): A "pollutant concentration must not be exceeded at any time during working hours." Roof would be the value that should not be exceeded at all during the whole day.TLV - STEL (Short Term Exposure Level): The level of short-term exposure, defined as "exposure limits should not exceed 15 minutes, which should not be repeated more than four times per day and must be spaced in time at least 1 hour. "These TLVs are relative and present problems of interpretation."This review shows that on average, the incidence of adverse effects from occupational exposures at or below the TLV varies between 0% and 100%, on average, one every 6-7 workers exposed to these levels show adverse effects, which clearly contradicts the definition of TLVs ""Our conclusion is that the TLVs for chemical substances are a compromise between considerations based on the health of workers and strictly practical considerations of the industry, with the balance heavily in favor of the latter. In other words, most of TLVs represent values that have been established as a guide but not safety limits ".
As already mentioned the most prestigious environmental criteria are TLVs, but has recently been a proposal of criteria that are the VLA (Exposure Limit), which would be defined as "reference values for concentrations of chemicals in the air, for which it is believed, based on current knowledge, that most workers can be exposed without adverse effect. " The VLA is prepared by the working clothes under the Ministry of Labour, and has distinguished two types of VLA:TWA (Daily Show) would be equivalent to the TLV-TWA.STEL (short term exposure) would be equivalent to the TLV-C.Both TLVs as VLAS refer to levels of contaminants in the environment, but other types of endpoints.Biological Criteria: Refer to the pollutant limits, a metabolite of the contaminant, or other parameters related to the pollutant measured in the worker. Can be measured in the presence of contaminating blood can be measured can be measured metabolites or other parameters as may be enzymes.
The reference values proposed by the ACGIH and are prepared BEI (Biological Exposure). These benchmarks to compare the recommended maximum contaminant level to that found in the worker.
In the workplace too, we see that what used to be repetitive industrial and agricultural jobs tend to be replaced by knowledge work, caring for people, or controlling complex machinery.
ResponderEliminarIndustrial Hygiene